Towards a Digital Twin infrastructure for landslides: users and data requirements

The increasing frequency and magnitude of landslides necessitates a fundamental shift from reactive mitigation to proactive, predictive risk governance. To define the necessary tools for this transition, this study conducts a systematic literature review and operational analysis of current Digital Twin (DT) implementations in the geosciences. Through this review, we identify four primary target user groups (emergency responders, technical experts, public administrators, and citizens) and map their specific 4D data requirements and interaction logics. Our findings highlight that most existing systems function as "Digital Shadows"characterised by unidirectional data flows and a topography gap, where dynamic sensor data is superimposed onto static, outdated 3D meshes. Based on these requirements, we propose a theoretical layered architectural framework for a Data Hub designed to bridge these gaps. The conceptual architecture is structured into three interconnected tiers: an Acquisition Layer for multi-scale data ingestion; a Modelling and Processing Layer for AI and physics-based stability assessment; and an Application and Service Layer for translating complex data into actionable intelligence. Finally, this work investigates a possible implementation path for landslides DT projects by outlining technical recommendations. This includes the adoption of cloud-native formats (e.g., Cloud Optimized GeoTIFF, Zarr) and unified interoperability standards (e.g., OGC SensorThings API) to evaluate the feasibility of transitioning towards a true bi-directional cyber-physical system for landslide risk management.