Application of Economic, Environmental, and Social Methods and Indicators for Assessing the Sustainability Impact of Three Mini-Grid Projects: Case Studies in Mozambique

The deployment of rural electrification actions through off-grid mini-grid solutions is one of the most effective approaches to achieving universal access to electricity in an affordable, reli- able, and sustainable way. To assess the sustainability of three mini-grid projects (Sembezea, Mawayela, and Dongane), this study applied a framework that integrates different methods (HOMER, LCA based on SimaPro, and Input–Output) and indicators under the economic, environmental, and social dimensions. Data for the analysis were obtained through site visits in the case study areas, a literature review, and the HOMER and ecoinvent databases. Sembezea and Mawayela were assessed based on their operational experience, whereas the Dongane biogas system is analyzed based on a projected household biodigester experience. The results of this study revealed the considerable benefits of biogas in generating local employment (506 employees) compared to wind/solar PV (98 employees) and hydro/solar PV (91 employ- ees), as it is expected to require a considerable number of employees for feedstock collection for the digester, under the assumed scale and conditions. Additionally, in the long term, bio- gas would present the lowest cost of electricity at $0.22/kWh compared to wind/solar PV ($0.28/kWh) and hydro/solar PV ($0.60/kWh), thereby improving the ability of the local com- munity to pay for electricity. In contrast, this study concluded that, in terms of environmental impact—particularly CO2 emissions—biogas has relatively poor environmental performance (4.58 × 10−2 kg CO2 eq) compared to wind/solar PV (8.50 × 10−4 kg CO2 eq) and hydro/solar PV (3.94 × 10−4 kg CO2 eq) in the long term. Nevertheless, biogas presents carbon neutrality as an advantage, in the sense that the CO2 released during its combustion is assumed to be carbon-neutral. By applying the framework to the aforementioned case studies, the extent to which it is possible to provide an integrated overview of the economic, environmental, and social aspects, as well as the impacts of different HRES options in line with the SDGs, is demonstrated.