Crowd Sourced Maps: Cognitive Instruments for Urban Planning and Tools to Enhance Citizens' Participation.

For centuries, mapping activity has been carried out by experts, in particular for military purposes or land administration, infrastructure planning, and environmental monitoring. It was only within the last decade that technological innovations in computer science, positioning, and navigation devices have facilitated citizens direct involvement in urban mapping. In particular, crowdsourced mapping shows potentials for urban and participatory planning. It allows people to create and share geographical information with few costs and expertise. Real-time data collection can have different aims: thematic map creation, collective story-telling, or social empowerment and counter-geography. Some critical points still exist. However, virtual maps can be considered alternative tools to enhance civic participation and to identify spatial and social opportunities for urban transformation.