Multiple ingestion exposure routes for alkylphenols: an integrated human health risk assessment including drinking water and crops' food

The widespread occurrence of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in freshwater and soil raises significant public health concerns, particularly in urbanized areas where drinking water and food crops serve as key exposure pathways. Among CECs, bisphenol A (BPA) and nonylphenol (NP) are of particular interest due to their persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and adverse health effects. However, conventional risk assessments often focus on single exposure routes, neglecting the combined impact of multiple ingestion pathways. This study develops an integrated human health risk assessment framework to evaluate the cumulative exposure to alkylphenols from both drinking water and food crops. The probabilistic Benchmark Quotient (BQ) approach is applied, incorporating uncertainty analyses to address knowledge gaps in contaminant occurrence, fate, and toxicity. BPA and NP concentration data were retrieved from the literature, and risk was estimated based on ingestion exposure from tap water and edible crops (cereals, fruits, and vegetables). Results indicate that BPA poses a significantly higher health risk than NP, with food consumption contributing more to overall risk than drinking water. This approach supports evidence-based decision-making by informing monitoring campaigns and prioritizing mitigation strategies for CECs, with potential applications for broader contaminant assessments in urban water management.