From Human-Robot to Human-Machine Collaboration

With the implementation of the Industry 4.0 concept, technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, the industrial internet of things (IIoT), and cloud computing are gradually being introduced into production environments to manage the growing complexity of manufacturing. However, due to constraints such as limited engineering capabilities, high variability in operating environments, significant costs, and maintenance challenges, many manufacturing tasks remain manual or are extremely difficult to automate. To address these challenges, the academic community has proposed the concept of human–robot collaboration (HRC), re-examining the interactions and working relationships between humans and machines in manufacturing. This perspective shifts away from the traditional notion of replacement and elimination, emphasizing the importance of cooperation and complementarity. It also highlights the importance of human-centered system design, which has become a core value of the emerging Industry 5.0.