Evaluation of risks to UNESCO World Heritage (WH) sites in Taxila, Pakistan using ground-based and satellite remote sensing techniques

In recent decades, UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHS) have experienced a significant increase of hazards due to multiple factors including earthquakes, climate change, management issues, urban sprawl and agriculture. However, damage assessments often failed to comprehensive picture and to determine the extension of the various types of threats affecting WHS. This situation is well reflected by WHS of Pakistan, where the potential threats have been only partially identified. As a result, we observe a growth of damage to the sites affecting their state of conservation. In order to tackle this issue, we propose a tailor-made methodology for documenting hazards to cultural heritage that integrates remote sensing and ground-based HVSR techniques. We tested its effectiveness and feasibility at the three UNESCO WHS of Taxila in northern Pakistan. Our methodology is designed to be cost-effective and a time-effective tool, easy to apply by local authorities, and may assist in improving both national damage assessment protocols and the UNESCO state of conservation reports elsewhere.